[ by Jason M. Wallin ]

Contents

• Key I: Make the data useful
• Key II: Make the data relevant to your goals
• Key III: Make the data as painless as possible

I know a lot of folks who absolutely loathe taking data, and I sided squarely with them for some time. But the value of taking good data, and much more importantly, making use of those data, has certainly become more evident as I continue to work with kids.

There are three keys, I feel, to success with data.

Key I: Make the data useful

Making your collected data a useful part of the program is the first key and of primary importance. If the data one collects have no other value than as a visual aid for an IEP meeting or for filling in a report card, there really is little sense in taking data at all. Data should be used to shape the child's program, to assess the efficacy of the chosen activities and teaching styles, and to look for trends in the child's behaviors and learning.

Key II: Make the data relevant to your goals

The second key is to ensure that one is taking data that are appropriate for the behavior being documented and for the goals associated with that behavior. There are a number of different types of behavioral data that one can take:

• Frequency -- How often does the behavior occur over a specific period of time?

  Obviously, the period of time one chooses will vary greatly depending upon the behavior being documented. If one were, for example, counting the number of conversation circles completed in a series of Floortime sessions, the period of time for each data collection session might be 20 minutes or so. Whereas, if one were tracking the occasions on which a child selected a particular toy (perhaps when assessing for new, motivating materials for increasing imaginative play), the time frame may be a week or more. Or, if one were collecting data on how many times a child initiated eye contact during a conversation, each data session might only be a minute or so.

  Data on the frequency of a behavior are best used when the goal for a program is to increase or decrease the occurrences of a behavior. For example: David will increase the number of unprompted requests he makes of peers to play at recess from one to four. Or, Kelsey will decrease the number of prompts required to stay on task through 20-minute free-reading session from ten to two.

• Proportion -- In what percentage of available opportunities did the behavior occur?

  Where frequency counts the number of target behaviors that occur in a given time frame, proportion looks at the number of target behaviors that occur in a given number of opportunities. Teachers use this type of data all the time; any worksheet or test is typically graded using a proportion. If there are 25 problems (opportunities for a correct behavior) and the child gets 20 right (20 actual correct behaviors) the child exhibited the target behavior 80% of the time.

  Data on the proportion of appropriate behavior are best used when the goal for a program is to increase the quality of a behavior -- Kaileen will increase her use of a distal point from approximately 10% of available occasions to approximately 75% of occasions when a preferred object is placed outside of her reach.

• Episode -- Was there an occurrence of the behavior during this period?

  I find myself documenting episodically primarily for maladaptive behaviors (most typically aggressive or self-injurious behaviors) that we have worked to extinguish, and where a single occurrence in a day, a week, or however long a window is appropriate, would require some attention. But tracking episodes can be very useful when analyzing a behavior that may be seen with one teacher and not another, or during one portion of the day and not another. If we see hand posturing in the thirty minutes after each recess, but nowhere else during the day, what might that tell us about recess (or being removed from recess) for this child?

• Duration -- For how long did the behavior occur?

  I typically record the duration for rather open-ended behaviors that I am trying to increase, for example, the amount of time that a child is able to attend to a story, or sit during circle time, or focus on his math paper. So if the child with whom I was working had a goal like, Jessica will increase the time she is able to sit quietly on the carpet without a prompt from 15 seconds to three minutes, I would use a stop watch and record how long Jessica is able to sit until I need to provide a prompt.

  Data on the duration of a behavior can also be used for behaviors that one is hoping to decrease or eliminate, typically through DRL (differential reinforcement of lesser degrees of behavior). For instance, assume I have been teaching some anger management strategies to a child, who is working on a goal such as, Jakob will use a variety of techniques to calm himself when someone is using a piece of playground equipment that he prefers, reducing the average length of his tantrums from three minutes to 30 seconds. I use duration data to document how long he tantrums before he uses one of those strategies. If a particular tantrum is shorter than his previous tantrum, I will give him some reinforcement. Otherwise, if he is less successful, I will implement some error correction procedure (increased prompting for example).

• Latency -- How long was the period of time between the discriminative stimulus and the response?

  Reducing latency, obviously, increases the number of trials possible over a certain time, allowing for more practice and, with luck, quicker acquisition of targeted skills. With a child who is uniformly slow to respond (when such a delay isn't likely the result of some biological processing delay, which I'm not sure I would try to treat behaviorally) it may be useful to implement programs designed to reduce latency specifically.

  Additionally, latency may be a measure one wishes to track, even when a program isn't specifically designed to address noted delays in responding. Overlearning a skill until it is an extremely rapid response may be beneficial in retention and ease of application of the behavior.

• Inter-response time -- How long was the period between behaviors?

  I can't recall having taken much data on inter-response time with any of the kids with whom I've worked. My focus is typically on behaviors themselves, as opposed to the spaces between them. But I can see a few uses for tracking this information. For example, if you had a child who incessantly inquires about the day's schedule of events, and with whom you had just begun a visual schedule, you may want to track the time between further requests to see when the schedule is most effective in reassuring the child about future events.

• Intensity -- To what degree was the behavior present?

  I usually try to avoid taking data on things like intensity, which tend to be very subjective. Once, was back in my infancy, I used a woefully inappropriate "Behavior" scale where I would rate a child's behavior over a certain time period from 1-10, while providing no specifics on what each of those scores represented. In reviewing the numbers, however, I was intrigued to discover how much worse the child's behavior was scored when I was having a rough day. Hmmmm... However, if some degree of objectivity and specificity can be can be accomplished for a particular behavior, tracking the intensity of that behavior may be worthwhile.

  Rating scales are often used for describing the intensity of a behavior. For a child who has frequent aggressive outbursts when asked to work, a rating scale might run something like this (this is not a terribly good example, but I hope is somewhat illustrative):

  1: Austin shows some aversion to the request (talking back or initial refusals), but begins work within 10 seconds.
  2: Austin is showing a lot of reluctance to the request, is arguing, and has not begun work after 10 seconds.
  3: Austin attempts to leave the work area.
  4: Austin knocks over chairs or throws materials.
  5: Austin makes physical contact with his teacher or a peer.
  

• Quality -- How well was the behavior performed?

  Quality, like intensity above, can be tough to record objectively. Also as with intensity, an objective rating scale with a good degree of specificity should be used if you are looking for a number to deal with. However, when I am concerned with the quality of a particular behavior, I try, if at all possible, to design activities where the child creates something. I typically find it easier to keep a portfolio of completed activities, and use those to assess an increase or decrease in quality over time, than to score a behavior on a scale (though, of course, there are a large number of behaviors that really can't be expressed in a product).

Key III: Make the data as painless as possible

The third key is finding a style of data collection and analysis that is comfortable and effective. We certainly don't want to end up spending more time with our data than with our kids. That style will, of course, be as individual as each person working with a child, and with the activity or behavior being documented. Here are a few hints and ideas on collecting and making use of data:

• For behaviors that are frequent and countable, one great way to track the number of ocurrences is to use small counters. Start the day with a handful of paper clips or other small, light objects (plastic bingo discs might work, as would beans) in your right pocket. Each time you see the target behavior during the day, move a clip from the right pocket to the left. At the end of the day, total up the counters in your left pocket and record. (Thanks to Melissa Galdys for this suggestion.)

• Slap a removable label onto your thigh for an easy, portable tally or note sheet. No clipboards needed.

• Counters (like bus drivers or some golfers use) are very handy for tallying behaviors that occur quickly or in a variety of settings where hauling a clipboard around might not work well. I also use a counter for a group of 4th graders who I work with after school, and who can, at times, get a bit talkative. I keep track of how many times I have to say, "Quiet, please," or "Let's get back on track," or the like. Ten or fewer at the end of the hour and it's rewards all around. Counters are available at many office supplies stores, and on-line from OfficeDepot and from Different Roads to Learning.

• One of the best ways to make data collection easier on you, is to not do it at all. Get peer tutors involved in flash card trials or the like. Mark the inside of a manila folder with a plus on one side and a minus on the other. If the child gets the trial right, the card goes on the plus side, wrong, and it goes on the minus. The peer can then plug pluses or minuses into a data sheet when the session is all over. Eventually, too, some kids can run such drills on themselves.

• Make time for your data. Take a few minutes at the end of each day to quickly review it. Did the child have trouble with anything specifically today that you might want to rethink for tomorrow (additional prompting, more visual supports, a decreased demand). What seemed to go particularly well and what can we draw from that to make other activities more successful? Take a few minutes at the end of the week to plot your new data points onto graphs (if you find the visual of a graph helpful) and to look for emerging trends which may drive the next week. Take a few minutes at the end of each month to take a good look at how the program has gone, and where it might be going.

You'll find a variety of data sheets, as well as a number of other (hopefully) helpful forms and worksheets in the printable documents section.

Have you any handy tips on making data collection and analysis easier? Data sheets that you have found particularly easy to use? Please contact me at jmwallin@polyxo.com.